古俄羅斯（Rusland）

Kievan Rus' From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search For other historical states known as Rus', see Rus. Kievan Rus' Р?сь (Old East Slavic) 882–1240 Realm of Kievan Rus' at its height (with dependent lands) Realm of Kievan Rus' at its height (with dependent lands) Capital Kiev Common languages Old East Slavic Religion Slavic paganism Reformed paganism Orthodox Christianity Noe paganism Government Monarchy Grand Prince of Kiev ? 882–912 Oleg the Seer ? 980–1015 Vladimir the Great ? 1019–1054 Yaroslav the Wise ? 1236–40 Saint Michael of Chernigov Legislature Veche, Prince Council History ? Established 882 ? Conquest of Khazar Khaganate 965–969 ? Baptism of Rus' c. 988 ? Russkaya Pravda early 11th century ? Mongol invasion of Rus' 1240 Area 1000[1] 1,330,000 km2 (510,000 sq mi) Population ? 1000[1] 5,400,000 Currency Grivna Preceded by Succeeded by Rus' Khaganate Novgorod Slavs Krivichs Chud Volga Fin Dregoviches Radimichs Pola (eastern) Severia Drevlia Vyatichi Volhynia White Croatia Tivertsi Ulichs Principality of Kiev Novgorod Republic Principality of Chernigov Principality of Pereyaslavl Vladimir-Suzdal Principality of Volhynia Principality of Halych Principality of Polotsk Principality of Smolek Principality of Ryazan Kievan Rus' (Old East Slavic: Р?сь (Rus' ), Р?сьска? земл? (Rus'skaya zemlya); Latin: Rus(s)ia, Ruscia, Ruzzia, Rut(h)enia[2][3]) was a loose federation[4] of East Slavic and Finnic peoples in Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century,[5] under the reign of the Varangian Rurik dynasty.[5] The modern natio of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine all claim Kievan Rus' as their cultural ancesto,[6] with Belarus and Russia deriving their names from it. At its greatest extent, in the mid-11th century, it stretched from the White Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south and from the headwate of the Vistula in the west to the Taman Peniula in the east,[7][8] uniting the majority of East Slavic tribes.[4] According to Russian historiography, the fit ruler to start uniting East Slavic lands into what has become known as Kievan Rus' was Prince Oleg (882–912). He extended his control from Novgorod south along the Dnieper river valley to protect trade from Khazar incuio from the east,[4] and he moved his capital to the more strategic Kiev. Sviatoslav I (died 972) achieved the fit major expaion of Kievan Rus' territorial control, fighting a war of conquest agait the Khaza. Vladimir the Great (980–1015) introduced Christianity with his own baptism and, by decree, extended it to all inhabitants of Kiev and beyond. Kievan Rus' reached its greatest extent under Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054); his so assembled and issued its fit written legal code, the Rus' Justice, shortly after his death.[9] The state declined beginning in the late 11th century and during the 12th century, disintegrating into various rival regional powe.[10] It was further weakened by economic facto, such as the collapse of Rus' commercial ties to the Byzantine Empire due to the decline of Cotantinople[11] and the accompanying diminution of trade routes through its territory. The state finally fell to the Mongol invasion of the 1240s. Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Origin 2.2 Invitation of the Varangia 2.3 Foundation of the Kievan state 2.4 Early foreign relatio 2.4.1 Volatile steppe politics 2.4.2 Rus'–Byzantine relatio 2.4.3 Sviatoslav 2.5 Reign of Vladimir and Christianisation 2.6 Golden age 2.7 Fragmentation and decline 2.7.1 Novgorod Republic 2.7.2 Northeast 2.7.3 Southwest 2.8 Final disintegration 3 Economy 4 Society 5 Historical assessment 6 Foreign relatio 6.1 Turco-Mongols 6.2 Byzantine Empire 6.3 Military campaig 7 Administrative divisio 8 Principal cities 9 Religion 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 12.1 Citatio 12.2 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External links Name Main articles: Rus' (name) and Ruthenia During its existence, Kievan Rus' was known as the "land of the Rus'" (Old East Slavic: Р??сьска? земл?, from the ethnonym Р??сь; Greek: ???; Arabic: ?????? al-Rūs), in Greek as ?ωσ?α, in Old French as Russie, Rossie, in Latin as Russia (with local German spelling variants Ruscia and Ruzzia), and from the 12th century also Ruthenia.[2] Various etymologies have been proposed, including Ruotsi, the Finnish designation for Sweden, and Ros, a tribe from the middle Dnieper valley region.[12] In the Noe sources, the sagas, the principality is called Garðariki, and the peoples, according to Snorre Sturlason, are called Suiones, the confederation of Great Sviþjoð (Þjoð mea people in Noe; cf. etymology of Sweden) were made up of the peoples along the Dniepr called Tanais that separated Asia and Europe (called Enea by Snorri Sturluson), all the way to the Baltics and Scandinavia.[13] The term Kievan Rus' (Ки?евская Русь Kievskaya Rus’) was coined in the 19th century in Russian historiography to refer to the period when the centre was in Kiev.[14] In English, the term was introduced in the early 20th century, when it was found in the 1913 English tralation of Vasily Klyuchevsky's A History of Russia,[15] to distinguish the early polity from successor states, which were also named Rus. Later, the Russian term was rendered into Belarusian and Ukrainian as К?е?ская Русь (Kije?skaja Rus’) and Ки??вська Русь (Kyivs'ka Rus’), respectively. History Origin See also: Rus' Khaganate Prior to the emergence of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century AD, the lands between the Baltic Sea and Black Sea were primarily populated by eastern Slavic tribes.[16] In the northern region around Novgorod were the Ilmen Slavs[17] and neighboring Krivichi, who occupied territories surrounding the headwate of the West Dvina, Dnieper, and Volga Rive. To their north, in the Ladoga and Karelia regio, were the Finnic Chud tribe. In the south, in the area around Kiev, were the Poliane, a group of Slavicized tribes with Iranian origi,[18] the Drevliane to the west of the Dnieper, and the Severiane to the east. To their north and east were the Vyatichi, and to their south was forested land settled by Slav farme, giving way to steppelands populated by nomadic herdsmen. Approximate ethno-linguistic map of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century: Five Volga Finnic groups of the Merya, Mari, Muromia, Meshchera and Mordvi are shown as surrounded by the Slavs to the west; the three Finnic groups of the Veps, Ests and Chuds, and Indo-European Balts to the northwest; the Permia to the northeast the (Turkic) Bulgha and Khaza to the southeast and south. Controvey peists over whether the Rus' were Varangia (Vikings) or Slavs. This uncertainty is due largely to a paucity of contemporary sources. Attempts to address this question itead rely on archaeological evidence, the accounts of foreign observe, and legends and literature from centuries later.[19] To some extent the controvey is related to the foundation myths of modern states in the region.[20] According to the "Normanist" view, the Rus' were Scandinavia, while Russian and Ukrainian nationalist historia generally argue that the Rus' were themselves Slavs.[21][22][23] Normanist theories focus on the earliest written source for the East Slavs, the Primary Chronicle,[24] although even this account was not produced until the 12th century.[25] Nationalist accounts have suggested that the Rus' were present before the arrival of the Varangia,[26] noting that only a handful of Scandinavian words can be found in modern Russian and that Scandinavian names in the early chronicles were soon replaced by Slavic names.[27] Nevertheless, archaeological evidence from the area suggests that a Scandinavian population was present during the 10th century at the latest.[28] On balance, it seems likely that the Rus' proper were a small minority of Scandinavia who formed an elite ruling class, while the great majority of their subjects were Slavs.[27] Coidering the linguistic arguments mounted by nationalist schola, if the proto-Rus' were Scandinavia, they must have quickly become nativized, adopting Slavic languages and other cultural practices. Ahmad ibn Fadlan, an Arab traveler during the 10th century, provided one of the earliest written descriptio of the Rus': "They are as tall as a date palm, blond and ruddy, so that they do not need to wear a tunic nor a cloak; rather the men among them wear garments that only cover half of his body and leaves one of his hands free."[29] Liutprand of Cremona, who was twice an envoy to the Byzantine court (949 and 968), identifies the "Russi" with the Noe ("the Russi, whom we call Noemen by another name")[30] but explai the name as a Greek term referring to their physical traits ("A certain people made up of a part of the Noe, whom the Greeks call [...] the Russi on account of their physical features, we designate as Noemen because of the location of their origin.").[31] Leo the Deacon, a 10th-century Byzantine historian and chronicler, refe to the Rus' as "Scythia" and notes that they tended to adopt Greek rituals and customs.[32] But 'Scythia' in Greek parlance is used predominantly as a generic term for nomads. Invitation of the Varangia The Invitation of the Varangia by Viktor Vasnetsov: Rurik and his brothe Sineus and Truvor arrive at the lands of the Ilmen Slavs. According to the Primary Chronicle, the territories of the East Slavs in the 9th century were divided between the Varangia and the Khaza.[33] The Varangia are fit mentioned imposing tribute from Slavic and Finnic tribes in 859.[34] In 862, the Finnic and Slavic tribes in the area of Novgorod rebelled agait the Varangia, driving them "back beyond the sea and, refusing them further tribute, set out to govern themselves." The tribes had no laws, however, and soon began to make war with one another, prompting them to invite the Varangia back to rule them and bring peace to the region: They said to themselves, "Let us seek a prince who may rule over us, and judge us according to the Law." They accordingly went oveeas to the Varangian Rus'. … The Chuds, the Slavs, the Krivichs and the Ves then said to the Rus', "Our land is great and rich, but there is no order in it. Come to rule and reign over us". They thus selected three brothe with their kinfolk, who took with them all the Rus' and migrated. — The Primary Chronicle[35] The three brothe—Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor—established themselves in Novgorod, Beloozero, and Izbok, respectively.[36] Two of the brothe died, and Rurik became the sole ruler of the territory and progenitor of the Rurik Dynasty.[37] A short time later, two of Rurik’s men, Askold and Dir, asked him for permission to go to Tsargrad (Cotantinople). On their way south, they discovered "a small city on a hill," Kiev, captured it and the surrounding country from the Khaza, populated the region with more Varangia, and "established their dominion over the country of the Polyania."[38][39] The Chronicle reports that Askold and Dir continued to Cotantinople with a navy to attack the city in 863–66, catching the Byzantines by surprise and ravaging the surrounding area,[39] though other accounts date the attack in 860.[40] Patriarch Photius vividly describes the "univeal" devastation of the suburbs and nearby islands,[41] and another account further details the destruction and slaughter of the invasion.[42] The Rus' turned back before attacking the city itself, due either to a storm dispeing their boats, the return of the Emperor, or in a later account, due to a miracle after a ceremonial appeal by the Patriarch and the Emperor to the Virgin.[43] The attack was the fit encounter between the Rus' and Byzantines and led the Patriarch to send missionaries north to engage and attempt to convert the Rus' and the Slavs.[44][45] Foundation of the Kievan state East-Slavic tribes and peoples, 8th–9th centuries Rurik led the Rus' until his death in about 879, bequeathing his kingdom to his kiman, Prince Oleg, as regent for his young son, Igor.[39][46] In 880-82, Oleg led a military force south along the Dnieper river, capturing Smolek and Lyubech before reaching Kiev, where he deposed and killed Askold and Dir, proclaimed himself prince, and declared Kiev the "mother of Rus' cities."[note 1][48] Oleg set about coolidating his power over the surrounding region and the riverways north to Novgorod, imposing tribute on the East Slav tribes.[38][49] In 883, he conquered the Drevlia, imposing a fur tribute on them. By 885 he had subjugated the Poliane, Severiane, Vyatichi, and Radimichs, forbidding them to pay further tribute to the Khaza. Oleg continued to develop and expand a network of Rus' forts in Slav lands, begun by Rurik in the north.[50] The new Kievan state prospered due to its abundant supply of fu, beeswax, honey, and slaves for export,[51] and because it controlled three main trade routes of Eastern Europe. In the north, Novgorod served as a commercial link between the Baltic Sea and the Volga trade route to the lands of the Volga Bulga, the Khaza, and across the Caspian Sea as far as Baghdad, providing access to markets and products from Central Asia and the Middle East.[52][53] Trade from the Baltic also moved south on a network of rive and short portages along the Dnieper known as the "route from the Varangia to the Greeks," continuing to the Black Sea and on to Cotantinople. Kiev was a central outpost along the Dnieper route and a hub with the east-west overland trade route between the Khaza and the Germanic lands of Central Europe.[54] These commercial connectio enriched Rus' merchants and princes, funding military forces and the cotruction of churches, palaces, fortificatio, and further tow.[53] Demand for luxury goods fostered production of expeive jewelry and religious wares, allowing their export, and an advanced credit and money-lending system may have also been in place.[51] Early foreign relatio Volatile steppe politics The rapid expaion of the Rus' to the south led to conflict and volatile relatiohips with the Khaza and other neighbo on the Pontic steppe.[55][56][57] The Khaza dominated the Black Sea steppe during the 8th century,[58] trading and frequently allying with the Byzantine Empire agait Peia and Arabs. In the late 8th century, the collapse of the Göktürk Khaganate led the Magya and the Pechenegs, Ugric and Turkic peoples from Central Asia, to migrate west into the steppe region,[59] leading to military conflict, disruption of trade, and itability within the Khazar Khaganate.[60] The Rus' and Slavs had earlier allied with the Khaza agait Arab raids on the Caucasus, but they increasingly worked agait them to secure control of the trade routes.[61] The Volga trade route (red), the "route from the Varangia to the Greeks" (purple) and other trade routes of the 8th–11th centuries (orange) The Byzantine Empire was able to take advantage of the turmoil to expand its political influence and commercial relatiohips, fit with the Khaza and later with the Rus' and other steppe groups.[55] The Byzantines established the Theme of Cheon, formally known as Klimata, in the Crimea in the 830s to defend agait raids by the Rus' and to protect vital grain shipments supplying Cotantinople.[62] Cheon also served as a key diplomatic link with the Khaza and othe on the steppe, and it became the centre of Black Sea commerce.[63] The Byzantines also helped the Khaza build a fortress at Sarkel on the Don river to protect their northwest frontier agait incuio by the Turkic migrants and the Rus', and to control caravan trade routes and the portage between the Don and Volga rive.[64] The expaion of the Rus' put further military and economic pressure on the Khaza, depriving them of territory, tributaries, and trade.[65] In around 890, Oleg waged an indecisive war in the lands of the lower Dniester and Dnieper rive with the Tivertsi and the Ulichs, who were likely acting as vassals of the Magya, blocking Rus' access to the Black Sea.[66][67] In 894, the Magya and Pechenegs were drawn into the wa between the Byzantines and the Bulgarian Empire. The Byzantines arranged for the Magya to attack Bulgarian territory from the north, and Bulgaria in turn peuaded the Pechenegs to attack the Magya from their rear. Boxed in, the Magya were forced to migrate further west across the Carpathian Mountai into the Hungarian plain, depriving the Khaza of an important ally and a buffer from the Rus'.[68][69] The migration of the Magya allowed Rus' access to the Black Sea,[70] and they soon launched excuio into Khazar territory along the sea coast, up the Don river, and into the lower Volga region. The Rus' were raiding and plundering into the Caspian Sea region from 864,[note 2] with the fit large-scale expedition in 913, when they exteively raided Baku, Gilan, Mazandaran and penetrated into the Caucasus.[note 3][73][74] As the 10th century progressed, the Khaza were no longer able to command tribute from the Volga Bulga, and their relatiohip with the Byzantines deteriorated, as Byzantium increasingly allied with the Pechenegs agait them.[75] The Pechenegs were thus secure to raid the lands of the Khaza from their base between the Volga and Don rive, allowing them to expand to the west.[56] Rus' relatio with the Pechenegs were complex, as the groups alternately formed alliances with and agait one another. The Pechenegs were nomads roaming the steppe raising livestock which they traded with the Rus' for agricultural goods and other products.[76] The lucrative Rus' trade with the Byzantine Empire had to pass through Pecheneg-controlled territory, so the need for generally peaceful relatio was essential. Nevertheless, while the Primary Chronicle reports the Pechenegs entering Rus' territory in 915 and then making peace, they were waging war with one another again in 920.[77][78] Pechenegs are reported assisting the Rus' in later campaig agait the Byzantines, yet allied with the Byzantines agait the Rus' at other times.[79] Rus'–Byzantine relatio Rus' under the walls of Cotantinople (860) After the Rus' attack on Cotantinople in 860, the Byzantine Patriarch Photius sent missionaries north to convert the Rus' and the Slavs. Prince Rastislav of Moravia had requested the Emperor to provide teache to interpret the holy scriptures, so in 863 the brothe Cyril and Methodius were sent as missionaries, due to their knowledge of the Slavonic language.[45][80][81] The Slavs had no written language, so the brothe devised the Glagolitic alphabet, later developed into Cyrillic, and standardized the language of the Slavs, later known as Old Church Slavonic. They tralated portio of the Bible and drafted the fit Slavic civil code and other documents, and the language and texts spread throughout Slavic territories, including Kievan Rus'. The mission of Cyril and Methodius served both evangelical and diplomatic purposes, spreading Byzantine cultural influence in support of imperial foreign policy.[82] In 867 the Patriarch announced that the Rus' had accepted a bishop, and in 874 he speaks of an "Archbishop of the Rus'."[44] Relatio between the Rus' and Byzantines became more complex after Oleg took control over Kiev, reflecting commercial, cultural, and military concer.[83] The wealth and income of the Rus' depended heavily upon trade with Byzantium. Cotantine Porphyrogenitus described the annual coue of the princes of Kiev, collecting tribute from client tribes, assembling the product into a flotilla of hundreds of boats, conducting them down the Dnieper to the Black Sea, and sailing to the estuary of the Dniester, the Danube delta, and on to Cotantinople.[76][84] On their return trip they would carry silk fabrics, spices, wine, and fruit. The importance of this trade relatiohip led to military action when disputes arose. The Primary Chronicle reports that the Rus' attacked Cotantinople again in 907, probably to secure trade access. The Chronicle glorifies the military prowess and shrewdness of Oleg, an account imbued with legendary detail.[44][85] Byzantine sources do not mention the attack, but a pair of treaties in 907 and 911 set forth a trade agreement with the Rus',[77][86] the terms suggesting pressure on the Byzantines, who granted the Rus' quarte and supplies for their merchants and tax-free trading privileges in Cotantinople.[44][87] The Chronicle provides a mythic tale of Oleg's death. A sorcerer prophesies that the death of the Grand Prince would be associated with a certain hoe. Oleg has the hoe sequestered, and it later dies. Oleg goes to visit the hoe and stands over the carcass, gloating that he had outlived the threat, when a snake strikes him from among the bones, and he soon becomes ill and dies.[88][89] The Chronicle reports that Prince Igor succeeded Oleg in 913, and after some brief conflicts with the Drevlia and the Pechenegs, a period of peace eued for over twenty yea. Princess Olga's avenge to the Drevlia. Radzivill chronicle In 941, Igor led another major Rus' attack on Cotantinople, probably over trading rights again.[44][90] A navy of 10,000 vessels, including Pecheneg allies, landed on the Bithynian coast and devastated the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus.[91] The attack was well-timed, perhaps due to intelligence, as the Byzantine fleet was occupied with the Arabs in the Mediterranean, and the bulk of its army was stationed in the east. The Rus' burned tow, churches, and monasteries, butchering the people and amassing booty. The emperor arranged for a small group of retired ships to be outfitted with Greek fire throwe and sent them out to meet the Rus', luring them into surrounding the contingent before unleashing the Greek fire.[92] Liutprand of Cremona wrote that "the Rus', seeing the flames, jumped overboard, preferring water to fire. Some sank, weighed down by the weight of their breastplates and helmets; othe caught fire." Those captured were beheaded. The ploy dispelled the Rus' fleet, but their attacks continued into the hinterland as far as Nicomedia, with many atrocities reported as victims were crucified and set up for use as targets. At last a Byzantine army arrived from the Balka to drive the Rus' back, and a naval contingent reportedly destroyed much of the Rus' fleet on its return voyage (possibly an exaggeration since the Rus' soon mounted another attack). The outcome indicates increased military might by Byzantium since 911, suggesting a shift in the balance of power.[91] Igor returned to Kiev keen for revenge. He assembled a large force of warrio from among neighboring Slavs and Pecheneg allies, and sent for reinforcements of Varangia from “beyond the sea.”[92][93] In 944 the Rus' force advanced again on the Greeks, by land and sea, and a Byzantine force from Cheon responded. The Emperor sent gifts and offered tribute in lieu of war, and the Rus' accepted. Envoys were sent between the Rus', the Byzantines, and the Bulgaria in 945, and a peace treaty was completed. The agreement again focused on trade, but this time with terms less favorable to the Rus', including stringent regulatio on the conduct of Rus' merchants in Cheon and Cotantinople and specific punishments for violatio of the law.[94] The Byzantines may have been motivated to enter the treaty out of concern of a prolonged alliance of the Rus', Pechenegs, and Bulgaria agait them,[95] though the more favorable terms further suggest a shift in power.[91] Sviatoslav Madrid Skylitzes, meeting between John Tzimiskes and Sviatoslav Following the death of Grand Prince Igor in 945, his wife Olga ruled as regent in Kiev until their son Sviatoslav reached maturity (ca. 963).[note 4] His decade-long reign over Rus' was marked by rapid expaion through the conquest of the Khaza of the Pontic steppe and the invasion of the Balka. By the end of his short life, Sviatoslav carved out for himself the largest state in Europe, eventually moving his capital from Kiev to Pereyaslavets on the Danube in 969. In contrast with his mother's conveion to Christianity, Sviatoslav, like his druzhina, remained a staunch pagan. Due to his abrupt death in an ambush in 972, Sviatoslav's conquests, for the most part, were not coolidated into a functioning empire, while his failure to establish a stable succession led to a fratricidal feud among his so, which resulted in two of his three so being killed. Reign of Vladimir and Christianisation Main article: Christianization of Kievan Rus' Rogneda of Polotsk, Vladimir I of Kiev and Izyaslav of Polotsk Baptism of Saint Prince Vladimir, by Viktor Vasnetsov, in the St Volodymyr's Cathedral It is not clearly documented when the title of the Grand Duke was fit introduced, but the importance of the Kiev principality was recognized after the death of Sviatoslav I in 972 and the euing struggle between Vladimir the Great and Yaropolk I. The region of Kiev dominated the state of Kievan Rus' for the next two centuries. The Grand Prince ("velikiy kniaz'") of Kiev controlled the lands around the city, and his formally subordinate relatives ruled the other cities and paid him tribute. The zenith of the state's power came during the reig of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and Prince Yaroslav I the Wise (1019–1054). Both rule continued the steady expaion of Kievan Rus' that had begun under Oleg. Vladimir had been prince of Novgorod when his father Sviatoslav I died in 972. He was forced to flee to Scandinavia in 976 after his half-brother Yaropolk had murdered his other brother Oleg and taken control of Rus. In Scandinavia, with the help of his relative Earl Håkon Sigurdsson, ruler of Norway, Vladimir assembled a Viking army and reconquered Novgorod and Kiev from Yaropolk.[96] As Prince of Kiev, Vladimir's most notable achievement was the Christianization of Kievan Rus', a process that began in 988. The Primary Chronicle states that when Vladimir had decided to accept a new faith itead of the traditional idol-wohip (paganism) of the Slavs, he sent out some of his most valued adviso and warrio as emissaries to different parts of Europe. They visited the Christia of the Latin Rite, the Jews, and the Muslims before finally arriving in Cotantinople. They rejected Islam because, among other things, it prohibited the coumption of alcohol, and Judaism because the god of the Jews had permitted his chosen people to be deprived of their country. They found the ceremonies in the Roman church to be dull. But at Cotantinople, they were so astounded by the beauty of the cathedral of Hagia Sophia and the liturgical service held there that they made up their minds there and then about the faith they would like to follow. Upon their arrival home, they convinced Vladimir that the faith of the Byzantine Rite was the best choice of all, upon which Vladimir made a journey to Cotantinople and arranged to marry Princess Anna, the sister of Byzantine emperor Basil II.[97] Ivan Eggink's painting represents Vladimir listening to the Orthodox priests, while the papal envoy stands aside in discontent. Vladimir's choice of Eastern Christianity may also have reflected his close peonal ties with Cotantinople, which dominated the Black Sea and hence trade on Kiev's most vital commercial route, the Dnieper River. Adherence to the Eastern Church had long-range political, cultural, and religious coequences. The church had a liturgy written in Cyrillic and a corpus of tralatio from Greek that had been produced for the Slavic peoples. This literature facilitated the conveion to Christianity of the Eastern Slavs and introduced them to rudimentary Greek philosophy, science, and historiography without the necessity of learning Greek (there were some merchants who did business with Greeks and likely had an undetanding of contemporary business Greek).[98] In contrast, educated people in medieval Western and Central Europe learned Latin. Enjoying independence from the Roman authority and free from tenets of Latin learning, the East Slavs developed their own literature and fine arts, quite distinct from those of other Eastern Orthodox countries.[citation needed] (See Old East Slavic language and Architecture of Kievan Rus for details). Following the Great Schism of 1054, the Rus' church maintained communion with both Rome and Cotantinople for some time, but along with most of the Eastern churches it eventually split to follow the Eastern Orthodox. That being said, unlike other parts of the Greek world, Kievan Rus' did not have a strong hostility to the Western world.[99] Golden age Golden Gate, Kiev Yaroslav, known as "the Wise", struggled for power with his brothe. A son of Vladimir the Great, he was vice-regent of Novgorod at the time of his father's death in 1015. Subsequently, his eldest surviving brother, Svyatopolk the Accued, killed three of his other brothe and seized power in Kiev. Yaroslav, with the active support of the Novgorodia and the help of Viking mercenaries, defeated Svyatopolk and became the grand prince of Kiev in 1019.[100] Although he fit established his rule over Kiev in 1019, he did not have uncontested rule of all of Kievan Rus' until 1036. Like Vladimir, Yaroslav was eager to improve relatio with the rest of Europe, especially the Byzantine Empire. Yaroslav's granddaughter, Eupraxia the daughter of his son Vsevolod I, Prince of Kiev, was married to Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor. Yaroslav also arranged marriages for his sister and three daughte to the kings of Poland, France, Hungary and Norway. Yaroslav promulgated the fit East Slavic law code, Russkaya Pravda; built Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev and Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod; patronized local clergy and monasticism; and is said to have founded a school system. Yaroslav's so developed the great Kiev Pechek Lavra (monastery), which functioned in Kievan Rus' as an ecclesiastical academy. In the centuries that followed the state's foundation, Rurik's descendants shared power over Kievan Rus'. Princely succession moved from elder to younger brother and from uncle to nephew, as well as from father to son. Junior membe of the dynasty usually began their official caree as rule of a minor district, progressed to more lucrative principalities, and then competed for the coveted throne of Kiev. Fragmentation and decline The gradual disintegration of the Kievan Rus' began in the 11th century, after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. The position of the Grand Prince of Kiev was weakened by the growing influence of regional cla. An unconventional power succession system was established (rota system) whereby power was traferred to the eldest member of the ruling dynasty rather than from father to son, i.e. in most cases to the eldest brother of the ruler, fomenting cotant hatred and rivalry within the royal family.[citation needed] Familicide was frequently deployed to obtain power and can be traced particularly during the time of the Yaroslavichi (so of Yaroslav), when the established system was skipped in the establishment of Vladimir II Monomakh as the Grand Prince of Kiev,[clarification needed] in turn creating major squabbles between Olegovichi from Chernihiv, Monomakhs from Pereyaslav, Izyaslavichi from Turov/Volhynia, and Polotsk Princes.[citation needed] The Nativity, a Kievan (possibly Galician) illumination from the Gertrude Psalter The most prominent struggle for power was the conflict that erupted after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. The rivaling Principality of Polotsk was contesting the power of the Grand Prince by occupying Novgorod, while Rostislav Vladimirovich was fighting for the Black Sea port of Tmutarakan belonging to Chernihiv.[citation needed] Three of Yaroslav's so that fit allied together found themselves fighting each other especially after their defeat to the Cuman forces in 1068 at the Battle of the Alta River. At the same time, an uprising took place in Kiev, bringing to power Vseslav of Polotsk who supported the traditional Slavic paganism.[citation needed] The ruling Grand Prince Iziaslav fled to Poland asking for support and in couple of yea returned to establish the order.[citation needed] The affai became even more complicated by the end of the 11th century driving the state into chaos and cotant warfare. On the initiative of Vladimir II Monomakh in 1097 the fit federal council of Kievan Rus took place near Chernihiv in the city of Liubech with the main intention to find an undetanding among the fighting sides. However, even though that did not really stop the fighting, it certainly cooled things off.[citation needed] By 1130, all descendants of Vseslav the Seer had been exiled to the Byzantine Empire by Mstislav the Great. The most fierce resistance to Monomakhs posed Olegovichi when the izgoi Vsevolod II managed to become the Grand Prince of Kiev. Rostislavichi who have initially established in Halych lands by 1189 were defeated by the Monomakh-Piast descendant Roman the Great.[citation needed] The decline of Cotantinople – a main trading partner of Kievan Rus' – played a significant role in the decline of the Kievan Rus'. The trade route from the Varangia to the Greeks, along which the goods were moving from the Black Sea (mainly Byzantine) through eastern Europe to the Baltic, was a cornetone of Kiev wealth and prosperity. Kiev was the main power and initiator in this relatiohip, once the Byzantine Empire fell into turmoil and the supplies became erratic, profits dried out, and Kiev lost its appeal.[citation needed] The last ruler to maintain a united state was Mstislav the Great. After his death in 1132, the Kievan Rus' fell into recession and a rapid decline, and Mstislav's successor Yaropolk II of Kiev itead of focusing on the external threat of the Cuma was embroiled in conflicts with the growing power of the Novgorod Republic. In 1169, as the Kievan Rus' state was full of internal conflict, Andrei Bogolyubsky of Vladimir sacked the city of Kiev. The sack of the city fundamentally changed the perception of Kiev and was evidence of the fragmentation of the Kievan Rus'.[101] By the end of the 12th century, the Kievan state became even further fragmented and had been divided into roughly twelve different principalities.[102] The Crusades brought a shift in European trade routes that accelerated the decline of Kievan Rus'. In 1204, the forces of the Fourth Crusade sacked Cotantinople, making the Dnieper trade route marginal.[11] At the same time, the Teutonic Knights (of the Northern Crusades) were conquering the Baltic region and threatening the Lands of Novgorod. Concurrently with it, the Ruthenian Federation of Kievan Rus' started to disintegrate into smaller principalities as the Rurik dynasty grew. The local Orthodox Christianity of Kievan Rus', while struggling to establish itself in the predominantly pagan state and losing its main base in Cotantinople, was on the brink of extinction. Some of the main regional centres that developed later were Novgorod, Chernigov, Halych, Kiev, Ryazan, Vladimir-upon-Klyazma, Volodimer-Volyn and Polotsk. Novgorod Republic Main article: Republic of Novgorod In the north, the Republic of Novgorod prospered because it controlled trade routes from the River Volga to the Baltic Sea. As Kievan Rus' declined, Novgorod became more independent. A local oligarchy ruled Novgorod; major government decisio were made by a town assembly, which also elected a prince as the city's military leader. In 1136, Novgorod revolted agait Kiev, and became independent.[103] Now an independent city republic, and referred to as "Lord Novgorod the Great" it would spread its "mercantile interest" to the west and the north; to the Baltic Sea and the low-populated forest regio respectively.[103] In 1169, Novgorod acquired its own archbishop, named Ilya, a sign of further increased importance and political independence. Novgorod enjoyed a wide degree of autonomy although being closely associated with the Kievan Rus. Northeast Main article: Vladimir-Suzdal This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citatio to reliable sources. Uourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) 1139 map of the Grand Duchy of Kiev, where northeastern territories identified as the Traforrest Colonies (Zalesie) by Joachim Lelewel In the northeast, Slavs from the Kievan region colonized the territory that later would become the Grand Duchy of Moscow by subjugating and merging with the Finnic tribes already occupying the area. The city of Rostov, the oldest centre of the northeast, was supplanted fit by Suzdal and then by the city of Vladimir, which become the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal'. The combined principality of Vladimir-Suzdal asserted itself as a major power in Kievan Rus' in the late 12th century. In 1169, Prince Andrey Bogolyubskiy of Vladimir-Suzdal sacked the city of Kiev and took over the title of the (Великий Князь/Velikiy Knyaz/Grand Prince or Grand Duke) to claim primacy in Rus'. Prince Andrey then italled his younger brother, who ruled briefly in Kiev while Andrey continued to rule his realm from Suzdal. In 1299, in the wake of the Mongol invasion, the metropolitan moved from Kiev to the city of Vladimir and Vladimir-Suzdal. Southwest Main article: Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citatio to reliable sources. Uourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) To the southwest, the principality of Halych had developed trade relatio with its Polish, Hungarian and Lithuanian neighbou and emerged as the local successor to Kievan Rus'. In 1199, Prince Roman Mstislavych united the two previously separate principalities. In 1202 he conquered Kiev, and assumed the title of Knyaz of Kievan Rus', which was held by the rule of Vladimir-Suzdal since 1169. His son, Prince Daniel (r. 1238–1264) looked for support from the West. He accepted a crown as a "Rex Rusiae" ("King of Rus") from the Roman papacy, apparently doing so without breaking with Cotantinople. In 1370, the patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church in Cotantinople granted the King of Poland a metropolitan for his Ruthenian subjects. Lithuanian rule also requested and received a metropolitan for Novagrudok shortly afterwards. Cyprian, a candidate pushed by the Lithuanian rule, became Metropolitan of Kiev in 1375 and metropolitan of Moscow in 1382; this way the church in the Russian countries was reunited for some time. In 1439, Kiev became the seat of a separate "Metropolitan of Kiev, Halych and all Rus'" for all Greek Orthodox Christia under Polish-Lithuanian rule. However, a long and uuccessful struggle agait the Mongols combined with internal opposition to the prince and foreign intervention weakened Galicia-Volhynia. With the end of the Mstislavich branch of the Rurikids in the mid-14th century, Galicia-Volhynia ceased to exist; Poland conquered Halych; Lithuania took Volhynia, including Kiev, conquered by Gediminas in 1321 ending the rule of Rurikids in the city. Lithuanian rule then assumed the title over Ruthenia. Final disintegration Lilac borde: Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, one of the successor states of Kievan Rus' The state finally disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of Rus', fragmenting it into successor principalities who paid tribute to the Golden Horde (the so-called Tatar Yoke). In the late 15th century, the Muscovite Grand Dukes began taking over former Kievan territories and proclaimed themselves the sole legal successo of the Kievan principality according to the protocols of the medieval theory of tralatio imperii. On the western periphery, Kievan Rus' was succeeded by the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia. Later, as these territories, now part of modern central Ukraine and Belarus, fell to the Gediminids, the powerful, largely Ruthenized Grand Duchy of Lithuania drew heavily on Rus' cultural and legal traditio. Due to the fact of the economic and cultural core of Rus' being located on the territory of modern Ukraine, Ukrainian historia and schola coider Kievan Rus' to be a founding Ukrainian state.[6] On the north-eastern periphery of Kievan Rus', traditio were adapted in the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality that gradually gravitated towards Moscow. To the very north, the Novgorod and Pskov Feudal Republics were less autocratic than Vladimir- Suzdal- Moscow until they were absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Russian historia coider Kievan Rus the fit period of Russian history. Economy During the Kievan era, trade and traport depended largely on networks of rive and portages.[104] The peoples of Rus' experienced a period of great economic expaion, opening trade routes with the Vikings to the north and west and with the Byzantine Greeks to the south and west; trade also began to travel south and east, eventually making contact with Peia and the peoples of Central Asia. Society See also: Old Russian Law and Russkaya Pravda Administering justice in Kievan Rus, by Ivan Bilibin Ship burial of a Rus' chieftain as described by the Arab traveler Ahmad ibn Fadlan, who visited North-Eastern Europe in the 10th century. Henryk Siemiradzki (1883) Due to the expaion of trade and its geographical proximity, Kiev became the most important trade centre and chief among the communes; therefore the leader of Kiev gained political "control" over the surrounding areas. This princedom emerged from a coalition of traditional patriarchic family communes banded together in an effort to increase the applicable workforce and expand the productivity of the land. This union developed the fit major cities in the Rus' and was the fit notable form of self-government. As these communes became larger, the emphasis was taken off the family holdings and placed on the territory that surrounded. This shift in ideology became known as the verv'. In the 11th and the 12th centuries, the princes and their retinues, which were a mixture of Slavic and Scandinavian elites, dominated the society of Kievan Rus'. Leading soldie and officials received income and land from the princes in return for their political and military services. Kievan society lacked the class ititutio and autonomous tow that were typical of Western European feudalism. Nevertheless, urban merchants, artisa and laboure sometimes exercised political influence through a city assembly, the veche (council), which included all the adult males in the population. In some cases, the veche either made agreements with their rule or expelled them and invited othe to take their place. At the bottom of society was a stratum of slaves. More important was a class of tribute-paying peasants, who owed labour duty to the princes. The widespread peonal serfdom characteristic of Western Europe did not exist in Kievan Rus'. The change in political structure led to the inevitable development of the peasant class or smerdy. The smerdy were free un-landed people that found work by labouring for wages on the mano that began to develop around 1031 as the verv' began to dominate socio-political structure. The smerdy were initially given equality in the Kievian law code, they were theoretically equal to the prince, so they enjoyed as much freedom as can be expected of manual laboure. However, in the 13th century, they slowly began to lose their rights and became less equal in the eyes of the law. Historical assessment The field of Igor Svyatoslavich's battle with the Polovtsy, by Viktor Vasnetsov Kievan Rus', although spaely populated compared to Western Europe,[105] was not only the largest contemporary European state in terms of area but also culturally advanced.[106] Literacy in Kiev, Novgorod and other large cities was high.[107][108] As birch bark documents attest, they exchanged love lette and prepared cheat sheets for schools. Novgorod had a sewage system[109] and wood paving not often found in other cities at the time. The Russkaya Pravda confined punishments to fines and generally did not use capital punishment.[110] Certain rights were accorded to women, such as property and inheritance rights.[111][112][113] The economic development of Kievan Rus may be tralated into demographic statistics. Around 1200, Kiev had a population of 50,000, Novgorod and Chernigov both had around 30,000.[114] Cotantinople had population of about 400,000 around 1180.[115] The Soviet scholar Mikhail Tikhomirov calculated that Kievan Rus' on the eve of the Mongol invasion had around 300 urban centres.[116] Kievan Rus' also played an important genealogical role in European politics. Yaroslav the Wise, whose stepmother belonged to the Macedonian dynasty, which ruled the Byzantine empire from 867 to 1056, married the only legitimate daughter of the king who Christianized Sweden. His daughte became quee of Hungary, France and Norway, his so married the daughte of a Polish king and a Byzantine emperor (not to mention a niece of the Pope), while his granddaughte were a German Empress and (according to one theory) the queen of Scotland. A grandson married the only daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king of England. Thus the Rurikids were a well-connected royal family of the time.[117][118] Foreign relatio See also: Varangia and Grand Prince of Kiev Turco-Mongols See also: Schechter Letter and Mongol invasion of Rus' The sacking of Suzdal, by Batu Khan From the 9th century, the Pecheneg nomads began an uneasy relatiohip with Kievan Rus′. For over two centuries they launched sporadic raids into the lands of Rus′, which sometimes escalated into full-scale wa (such as the 920 war on the Pechenegs by Igor of Kiev reported in the Primary Chronicle), but there were also temporary military alliances (e.g. the 943 Byzantine campaign by Igor).[note 5] In 968, the Pechenegs attacked and besieged the city of Kiev.[119] Some speculation exists that the Pechenegs drove off the Tivertsi and the Ulichs to the regio of the upper Dniester river in Bukovina. The Byzantine Empire was known to support the Pechenegs in their military campaig agait the Eastern Slavic states.[citation needed] Boniak was a Cuman khan who led a series of invasio on Kievan Rus′. In 1096, Boniak attacked Kiev, plundered the Kiev Monastery of the Caves, and burned down the prince's palace in Berestovo. He was defeated in 1107 by Vladimir Monomakh, Oleg, Sviatopolk and other Rus′ princes.[120] The Mongol Empire invaded Kievan Rus' in the 13th century, destroying numerous cities, including Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir and Kiev. Giovanni de Plano Carpini, the Pope's envoy to the Mongol Great Khan, traveled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote: "They [the Mongols] attacked Rus, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Rus; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery"[121] Byzantine Empire See also: Rus'–Byzantine War Druzhina Byzantium quickly became the main trading and cultural partner for Kiev, but relatio were not always friendly. The most serious conflict between the two powe was the war of 968–971 in Bulgaria, but several Rus' raiding expeditio agait the Byzantine cities of the Black Sea coast and Cotantinople itself are also recorded. Although most were repulsed, they were concluded by trade treaties that were generally favourable to the Rus'. Rus'-Byzantine relatio became closer following the marriage of the porphyrogenita Anna to Vladimir the Great, and the subsequent Christianization of the Rus': Byzantine priests, architects and artists were invited to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus', expanding Byzantine cultural influence even further. Numerous Rus' served in the Byzantine army as mercenaries, most notably as the famous Varangian Guard. Military campaig Caspian expeditio of the Rus' (864 - 1041) Rus'–Byzantine Wa (830 - 1043) 1018 Polish intervention Administrative divisio See also: List of early East Slavic states 11th century Novgorod Land 862–1478 the allied territory of Kievan Rus'; from 1136 the Novgorod Republic Principality of Rostov-Suzdal Rostov Principality until 1125; became Vladimir-Suzdal Principality in 1155 Principality of Polotsk 9th century-14th century (separatist territory, partial suzerainty under Kievan Rus') Principality of Mik Principality of Smolek from 1054 Principality of Pereyaslavl Principality of Volhynia Principality of Kiev from 1132–1399 Principality of Galicia Principality of Turov and Pik Principality of Chernigov Murom-Ryazan Principality until 1078 Principality of Novgorod-Sevek City of Tmutarakan from 988 until some time in the 12th century Belaya Vezha from 965 until some time in the 12th century Southern dependencies Oleshky, New Galich, Peresechen' Drevlian territories annexed to Rus' by Oleg ?-884; 912–946 (vassal of Rus' from 914, Drevlia Uprising in 945) Principal cities Belgorod Kievsky, capital of Rus' under Rurik Rostislavich Chernihiv, capital along with Kiev from 1024–1036 (joint rule between Yaroslav and Mstislav) Halych Kiev Mik, centre of Principality of Mik Murom Pereyaslavets, capital of Rus' from 969–971 (in current day Romania) Polotsk Rostov Veliky Ryazan Smolek Staraya Ladoga Suzdal Tmutarakan Veliky Novgorod Vladimir Vyshgorod, princes' residence and royal library (at Mezhyhirya) Religion Model of the original Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev; used on modern 2 hryvni of Ukraine Saint Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk (rebuilt in the mid-18th century after destruction by Russian army) Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, mid-11th century Dormition Cathedral, Vladimir, 1160 In 988, the Christian Church in Rus' territorially fell under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Cotantinople after it was officially adopted as the state religion. According to several chronicles after that date the predominant cult of Slavic paganism was peecuted. The exact date of creation of the Kiev Metropolis is uncertain, as well as who was the fit leader of the church. Predominantly it is coidered that the fit head was Michael I of Kiev, however some sources also claim Leontiy who is often placed after Michael or Anastas Cheonesos, became the fit bishop of the Church of the Tithes. The fit metropolitan to be confirmed by historical sources is Theopemp, who was appointed by Patriarch Alexius of Cotantinople in 1038. Before 1015 there were five dioceses: Kiev, Chernihiv, Bilhorod, Volodymyr, Novgorod, and soon thereafter Yuriy-upon-Ros. The Kiev Metropolitan sent his own delegation to the Council of Bari in 1098. After the sacking of Kiev in 1169, part of the Kiev metropolis started to move[citation needed] to Vladimir-upon-Klyazma, concluding the move sometime after 1240 when Kiev was taken by Batu Khan. Metropolitan Maxim was the fit metropolitan who chose Vladimir-upon-Klyazma as his official residence in 1299. As a result, in 1303, Lev I of Galicia petitioned Patriarch Athanasius I of Cotantinople for the creation of a new Halych metropolis; however, it only existed until 1347.[citation needed] The Church of the Tithes was chosen as the fit Cathedral Temple. In 1037, the cathedral was traferred to the newly built Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. Upon the traferring of the metropolitan seat in 1299, the Dormition Cathedral, Vladimir was chosen as the new cathedral. By the mid 13th century, the dioceses of Kiev Metropolis (988) were as follows: Kiev (988), Pereyaslav, Chernihiv (991), Volodymyr-Volyky (992), Turov (1005), Polotsk (1104), Novgorod (~990s), Smolek (1137), Murom (1198), Peremyshl (1120), Halych (1134), Vladimir-upon-Klyazma (1215), Rostov (991), Bilhorod, Yuriy (1032), Che?m (1235), Tver (1271). There also were dioceses in Zakarpattia and Tmutarakan. In 1261 the Sarai-Batu diocese was established.[citation needed] See also Old Russian Chronicles De Administrando Imperio Slavic studies Kievan Rus' Park Mother of Rus' cities Symbols of the Rurikids History